IBNU C.R

IBNU C.R

Selasa, 15 November 2011

An Empirical Study of Consumer Impulse Buying Behavior in Local Markets


     Muhammad Ali Tirmizi
    PH.D Candidate, FUIEMS, Foundation University, Islamabad, Pakistan
    E-mail: m5alitahir@gmail.com
       Kashif-Ur-Rehman
          Associate Professor, Iqra University, Islamabad, Pakistan
      E-mail: dr.kashifurrehman@gmail.com
    M. Iqbal Saif
Head of the Department, Management Sciences, FUIEMS, Foundation        
 University, Islamabad, Pakistan
E-mail: drmisaif@gmail.com

Abstract


This paper investigates the relationship between independent variables which are
shopping lifestyle of consumers, fashion involvement of consumers, pre-decision stage and
post-decision stage of consumer purchase behavior with the attitudinal and behavioral
aspects of impulse buying behavior. This study attempts to explore the association exists
between the variables involved, by tapping the responses of 165 respondents from higher
income group in the area of Rawalpindi and Islamabad. The major findings of the study
demonstrated an overall weak association of the set of independent variables with the
dependent variable but, the in-depth analysis found that pre-decision stage of consumer
purchase behavior is the only variable that resulted into strong association with the impulse
buying behavior. It’s true that young people more often get attracted to products displayed
on store shelves and has greater tendency of impulse buying behavior but results of this
paper showed no association of impulse buying in higher income group of young people
having prevalent impulse buying tendencies. This study reported new evidences in the field
of impulse buying behavior of consumers pertaining to the local markets of the twin cities
of Pakistan.

1.  Introduction

Stores are the place where buyers buy products whether it’s planned or unplanned purchase. These
stores sell hundreds and thousands of products daily and consumers are consuming these products at
the cost of their income. It only dependents on the income of the person, that how much and how many
times he or she visits shopping stores to buy products. It is usually seen that buyers purchase products
which they have not planned and this phenomenon of unplanned purchasing is termed as impulse An Empirical Study of Consumer Impulse Buying Behavior in Local Markets 523
buying. In previous researches, researchers and scholars have tried to measure impulse purchasing of
different types of products in multiple shopping stores as it is reported by Bellenger et al. (1978); Du
Pont (1965); Kollat and Willett (1967), Prasad (1975); Williams and Dardis (1972).
In Pakistan there are four types of price indices; Consumer Price Index (CPI), Wholesales Price
Index (WPI), Sensitive Price Index (SPI) and GDP Deflator, which are used to calculate inflation.
Among these indicators, the major emphasis is on CPI as a measure of inflation, which covers 375
items in 71 markets of 35 cities of the country (Economic Survey, 2006-07). The average CPI value in
the period (1990-00) was 9.71 and it was 5.8 in (2000-07). It is also seen that the inflation rate in
lowest income group was 8.3 with the income ranging from below 3,000 up to 5,000 Rupees as
compared to the inflation rate of 7.3 in the upper income brackets having income of more than 12,000
Rupees. Hence, we can say with confidence that the purchasing capacities of households lying in upper
income bracket in Pakistan have increased as compared to lower income groups. Here it is essential to
quote the percentage shares of the income groups mentioned above. The 20% lower income group in
Pakistan holds 9.65 percent of the total income share and the 20% of the highest income group in
Pakistan holds 41.72% of the total income share where as rest goes to middle income group which is
48.63% comprising 60% of the total income group (Federal Bureau of Statistics, 2004-05).
These figures are quoted here to build a framework in which we further extend this study. Now,
the figures presented earlier demonstrated that there is a tendency of impulse buying in higher income
group in Pakistan as their income level clearly indicates this trend. In this study more than 80 percent
of the respondents (see annexure) were related to the higher income bracket having income greater than
12,000 Rupees per month. Increased disposable income as well as credit availability has resulted in
increased impulse buying habit among consumers in the retail environment as reported by Dittmar and
Drury (2000). In order to tap this behavior of impulse buying in the consumer, we have selected areas
of Rawalpindi and Islamabad to initiate our research. We are intending to investigate that whether
higher income group having income greater than 12,000 Rupees have planned or unplanned buying
behavior.


The basic questions we want to investigate in this research study are as follows:
Q1: What is the level of association between shopping life style and impulse buying behavior of
consumers of higher income group having disposable income, shopping in the area of
Rawalpindi and Islamabad?
Q2: What is the level of association between fashion involvement and impulse buying behavior
of consumers of higher income group having disposable income, shopping in the area of
Rawalpindi and Islamabad?
Q3: What is the level of association between pre-decision stage regarding purchasing and
impulse buying behavior of consumers of higher income group having disposable income,
shopping in the area of Rawalpindi and Islamabad?
Q4: What is the level of association between post-decision stage regarding purchasing and
impulse buying behavior of consumers of higher income group having disposable income,
shopping in the area of Rawalpindi and Islamabad?
2.  Rationale of the Study
It is seen that shopping mall owners tried to exploit impulses, which are associated with the basic need
for instant satisfaction. A buyer in the shopping store might not specifically be shopping for the
confectionary goods like, sweets, chocolates, bubble gums, mints and biscuits. However, related
confectionary items displayed at prominent places will certainly attract buyer’s attention and trigger
impulse buying behavior in them. This phenomenon can easily be understood with the help of two
principles/forces as a part of psychological review of literature, which interprets impulses as the
consequences of these competing principles/forces. These principles are well presented in the papers of
Freud (1956) and Mai,et al.(2002). These principles are stated below:
524 Muhammad Ali Tirmizi, Kashif-ur-Rehman and M. Iqbal Saif
a. First, the pleasure principle
b. Second, the reality principle
The pleasure principle is related to immediate satisfaction felt by consumer whereas the reality
principle is related to delayed gratification. There is always an ongoing competition between these two
forces represented as principles within the buyer when they enter a shopping store with the intention to
buy. As a consequence impulse related behavior overcomes them because impulses are usually difficult
to resist and involve premeditated pleasurable experiences, as of study of Rook (1987).
In this paper we are interested in finding associations among variables (see Research model and
sub models) regarding spending of upper income group people regardless of linkages of these variables
to different impulse buying patterns related to diversified groups of buyers.
This paper will certainly add value to the existing knowledge base and simultaneously give us
courage to indulge in further advance researches in the field of management sciences. This study is also
useful for retailers and manufacturers who want to improve their understanding regarding consumer
impulse buying behavior.


3.  Purpose of the Study
The purpose of the research study is to test the association of the independent variables that are;
shopping life style, fashion involvement, pre-decision stage, post-decision stage regarding consumer
purchasing with the dependent variable that is; impulse buying behavior of consumers who shop in the
area of Rawalpindi and Islamabad.


4.  Literature Review
Marketing and consumer researchers over the period of forty years have tried to grasp the concept of
impulse buying and defined this terminology in their own perspectives, for which some research
findings are discussed here.
In a research conducted by Cobb and Hoyer (1986), impulse buying was defined as an
unplanned purchase and this definition can also be found in the research of Kollat and Willett (1967).
In another research by Rook (1987) reported that impulse buying usually takes place, when a consumer
feels a forceful motivation that turns into a desire to purchase a commodity instantly. Beatty and
Ferrell (1998) defined impulse buying as instantaneous purchase having no previous aim or objective
to purchase the commodity. Stern (1962) found that products bought on impulse are usually cheap.
Shopping lifestyle is defined as the behavior exhibited by purchaser with regard to the series of
personal responses and opinions about purchase of the products as reported by Cobb and Hoyer (1986).
They find that shopping life style and impulse buying behavior are closely related but only in the case
of impulse buyers. The study also states that impulse purchasers fell in the middle as of the
measurement tools used by the researchers, indicated that purchasers will not pick the first brand they
spotted in the shopping mall.
In researches conducted by Cha (2001); Han et al., (1991); Ko (1993) it is reported that impulse
buying behavior regarding fashion products are associated with patterns like chaste, repeated emotions
as well as fashion-oriented impulse buying behaviors. These facts were also quoted by Park et al.
(2006). The definition of fashion involvement basically relates to apparel associated with fashionable
outfits. The findings of Han et al. (1991) quoted in response to fashion involvement of consumers, that
it might enhance fashion-oriented impulse buying behaviors among those who habitually wear fashion
outfits. Fairhurst et al. (1989) and Seo et al. (2001) found a direct association among fashion
involvement and apparels purchase. Positive emotions are defined as affects and moods, which
determine intensity of consumer decision-making reported by Watson and Tellegen (1985). Park
(2006) found a positive relationship of positive emotions, fashion involvement and fashion-oriented
impulse buying with the overall impulse buying behavior of the consumers. Ko (1993) reported that
An Empirical Study of Consumer Impulse Buying Behavior in Local Markets 525
positive emotions may result into fashion related impulse purchase. The researches of Beatty and
Ferrell (1998); Husman (2000); Rook and Gardner (1993); Youn and Faber, (2000) found that
emotions strongly influence buying behaviors, which result into consumer impulse buying. Babin and
Babin (2001) found that in stores consumer’s purchasing intentions and spending can largely be
influenced by emotions. These emotions may be specific to certain things for example, the features of
the items, customer self interest, consumer’s gauge of evaluating items and the importance they give to
their purchasing at a store.
Piron (1993) found that the total of nine items, a combination of pre-decision and post-decision
stages indicators, resulted into high significant differences and the values of correlations for unplanned
purchases done by consumers resulted into higher value as compared to purchases done by consumers
on impulse. Their study indicated that out of total questionnaires distributed which were 361, 53 were
unplanned purchasers and 145 were impulse buyers (total= 198).

4.1. Research Model

Shopping lifestyle of consumer
Fashion involvement of the
consumer
Pre-decision stage of the
consumer regarding buying
products
Post-decision stage of the
consumer regarding buying
products

α  = 0.42
α  = 0.451
α  = 0.653
α  = 0.552
α  = 0.710
Attitudinal and
Behavioral aspect of
Impulse Buying
Tendency and
Frequency of
consumers

The above diagrammatical research model can be written in a mathematical form and the
mathematical model of this research is stated below:

4.2. Hypothesis
The hypotheses formulated after review of the literature are given below:
H1: Shopping lifestyle of the consumers has a strong association with the impulse buying behavior
of the consumers.
H2: Fashion involvement of consumers has a strong association with the impulse buying behavior
of the consumers.
H3: Pre-decision stage of the consumer intending to buy a product has a strong association with the
impulse buying behavior of the consumers.
H4: post-decision stage of the consumer who has bought the product has a strong association with
the impulse buying behavior of the consumers.
The testing of the hypotheses is confined to the primary data collected from the area of
Islamabad and Rawalpindi (the twin cities).

5.  Methodology
5.1. Sample
The consumers, who shop in general stores, departmental stores, boutiques, shopping malls, small
retail outlets, etc, in the area of Islamabad and Rawalpindi were taken as the population for this study.
A convenient sample (non-probability sampling method) of 165 consumers was pooled up for the
current study in which respondents of this study were requested to complete the questionnaire on
voluntary basis and not a single attempt was made to chase non-respondents. Among the respondents,
74.1% were related to the income group of more than 20,000 Rupees, 26.1% related to the income
group of less than 20,000 Rupees, 47.9% were male and 52.1% were female, 77% were between the
age of (20-29), 3% were between the age of (50-59), 80% were unmarried and 18.2% were married,
53.3% were having masters degree and 33.3% were having bachelor’s degree (see annexure).

5.2. Instrumentation
The instrument contained sub-parts. These sub-parts of the instrument were retrieved from different
previous studies. The behavioral aspect of impulse buying in which items were arranged to measure the
impulse buying tendency was adopted from the paper of Rook and Fisher (1995) and then further
modified. Whereas, the attitudinal aspect of impulse buying in which items were arranged to measure
frequency was adopted from the paper of Kacen and Lee (2002) and then further modified. This scale
can also be found in the study of Mai et al. (2002). The sub-part of the questionnaire regarding
consumer lifestyle was adopted from the paper of Cobb and Hoyer (1986), where items are measured
on 5-point likert scale ranging from (1 = definitely disagree, 5 = definitely agree). The sub-part of the
questionnaire regarding fashion involvement was adopted from the paper of Park et al. (2006), where
items are measured on 7-point likert scale ranging from (1 = strongly disagree, 7 = strongly agree). The
An Empirical Study of Consumer Impulse Buying Behavior in Local Markets 527
sub-part of the questionnaire regarding pre-decision and post-decision stage of consumer purchasing
was adopted from the paper of Piron (1993), where items are measured on 5-point likert scale ranging
from (1 = definitely disagree, 5 = definitely agree). After collecting 100 responses the reliability of the
instrument was checked by the help of Statistical Package for Social Sciences. The value of
Cronbach’s Alpha was 0.710, which confirmed the reliability of the instrument and then further
responses up to 165 were collected. This instrument basically comprised of four parts in which
questions were distributed regarding, Consumer lifestyle, fashion involvement, pre-decision stage and
post-decision stage of consumer purchasing.

5.3. Procedure
The data collected was by means of well developed, adopted scale having four parts. This instrument
was further modified according to the needs of the current study. All of the questionnaires were
distributed among the respondents in the area of Rawalpindi and Islamabad personally by the
researchers. Total of 200 questionnaires were distributed, but 165 questionnaires were returned. Thus,
questionnaires recovery rate equaled 82 percent. The data was collected in the time frame of 20 days
and then responses were fed into the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 15 for
analysis and evaluation. Multiple regression analysis was used as a statistical test to determine the
degree of relationship between the variables involved in this study (Mai et al., 2002).


6.  Results and Discussion
6.1. Results
The data presented in table 2, shows the results extracted on the basis of multiple regression to find the
association level between the Independent variables and the dependent variable.
The testing of hypotheses developed earlier revealed the following results after which the
mathematical model of this research has been modified:

The above modification of the mathematical model shows that hypothesis 1, 2 and 4 are
rejected based on their weak associations among the variables involved (p > 0.05). Hypothesis 3 is only
accepted based on the strong association among the variables involved (p < 0.05).

Table 2: (Beta Coefficients, Standard error in parenthesis, t-Value in Brackets and P- Values in italics)

Constant IV-1 IV-2 IV-3 IV-4 R Square F-Statistics
1.328 .123 .076 .279 .125 .302 17.324
(0.340) (0.093) (0.041) (0.060) (0.084)
[3.908] [1.320] [1.837] [4.618] [1.494]  

.000 .189 .068 .000 .137  .000
Result of Hypothesis
H1 H2 H3 H4  
Testing
Rejected Rejected Accepted Rejected - -
Legend: Constant: Attitudinal and Behavioral aspect of Impulse Buying Tendency and Frequency of consumers
IV-1: Shopping lifestyle of consumer
IV-2: Fashion involvement of the consumer
IV-3: Pre-decision stage of the consumer regarding buying products
IV-4: Post-decision stage of the consumer regarding buying products

The results reveal that independent variable of pre-decision stage of the consumer regarding
buying products account variation in the dependent variables with t-value [4.618] that is significant at
(p < 0.05), where as independent variables; shopping lifestyle of consumer, fashion involvement of the
consumer and post-decision stage of the consumers regarding buying products account no variation in
c, t
528 Muhammad Ali Tirmizi, Kashif-ur-Rehman and M. Iqbal Saif
the dependent variable with t-values that are not significant at (p > 0.05). We found that there is
positive significant impact of these independent variables on the dependent variable (F = 17.324)(p <
0.05). The value of Beta for all the independent variables shows a positive association within the model
of coefficients. The value of (R-Square = 0.302) and (R = 0.550) predicting a moderate relationship
between the set of independent variables and the dependent variable with the reduced error of
prediction by 30.2 percent.

6.2. Discussion
A positive relationship of fashion involvement with the impulse buying behavior of the consumers was
reported by Park (2006). Where as, in our study, statistics showed a negative association between
fashion involvement and attitudinal and behavioral aspects of impulse buying. Here, according to the
statistical interpretation of results fashion involvement can’t be taken as impulse buying because
consumers having fashion interests, if it is the case, usually buy branded products of high quality and
style and like to purchase fashion apparels from their specified shops or boutiques.
The study of Coob and Hoyer (1986) reported a strong association between shopping life style
and impulse buying behavior. But, in our study shopping lifestyle is negatively associated with the
overall impulse buying behavior which is evident from the fact that majority of the consumers are
regular buyers because 53.3% of them hold masters degrees and can plan their purchases. These buyers
usually buy from routine store or shops and mostly avoid impulse buying.
The statistics of table 2, showed that there is a positive relationship between pre-decision stage
of consumer purchase and impulse buying behavior which can be supported by the study of Piron
(1993), where they found high significance difference and association for the total of nine items
combining pre-decision and post-decision stage of consumer purchasing with impulse buying.
Whereas, deviation in the statistical results are found in the case of post-decision stage of consumer’s
purchasing behavior.
Hence, According to the results of the analysis, young people having age between (20-29
years), holding master or bachelor degree and belong to a household having income greater than
12,000 Rupees are wise spenders because they plan their spending, have less fashion involvement as
table-3 shows that among 165 respondents majority dress for comfort not fashion. But, this higher
income group of young people have behavioral tendency of impulse buying at pre-decision stage of
buying, which is evident from the results of table-2. Here, it is imperative to mention that in Pakistan
young people using live in a joint family system.

Table 3: Response of respondents on an item regarding fashion involvement


Valid

I usually dress for fashion not comfort, if I must choose between two (N=165)
 Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent
Strongly disagree  35 212 21.2 21.2
Very disagree 33 20.0 20.0 41.2
Disagree 20 12.1 12.1 53.3
Neither agree nor disagree 21 12.7 12.7 66.1
Agree 20 12.1 12.1 78.2
Very agree 20 12.1 12.1 90.3
Strongly agree 16 9.7 9.7 100.0
Total 165 100.0 100.0
7.  Conclusion
The results of this research study clearly indicate that there exits a weak association between consumer
lifestyle, fashion involvement and post-decision stage of consumer’s purchasing behavior with the
impulse buying behavior including the attitudinal as well as behavioral aspects of the consumers
An Empirical Study of Consumer Impulse Buying Behavior in Local Markets 529
buying behavior. Pre-decision stage of consumer’s purchasing behavior established strong association
with the impulse buying behavior of the consumers.
So, it is established through this research that consumers purchasing products in the area of
Islamabad and Rawalpindi plan their purchases, having shopping lifestyle related to planned purchases
and their post-decisions are also not guilty. The pre-decision stage of the purchasing associate these
buyers with unplanned or impulse buying because these days stores are full of variety of products and a
buyer can easily get interested in purchasing a product which appeals him or her while shopping the
planned list of products and here pleasure principle comes into play.


8.  Further research
There is a need to conduct research regarding personality characteristics of consumers and find their
impact on the impulse buying behavior in Pakistan, for which differences can be compared if research
is conducted separately in the groups of male and female consumers. This proposed research can bring
to surface the true association of personality characteristics of the consumers having impulse buying
behavior and will also facilitate in identifying the main influential psychological factors accelerating
the impulse buying behavior in consumers and it will definitely help practitioners in improving their
marketing strategies regarding products sales.
530 Muhammad Ali Tirmizi, Kashif-ur-Rehman and M. Iqbal Saif
References
[1] Babin, B. J. and Babin, L. (2001), “Seeking something different? A model of schema typically,
consumer affect. Purchase intentions and perceived shopping value”, Journal of Business
research, Vol. 54 No.2, pp. 89-96.
[2] Beatty, S. E. and Ferrell, M. E. (1998), “Impulse buying: modeling its precursors”, Journal of
Retailing, Vol. 74 No. 2, pp. 169-191.
[3] Bellenger, D. D., Robertson, D. and Hirschman, E. (1978), “Impulse Buying Varies by
Product,” Journal of Advertising Research, 18 (December), 15-18.
[4] Cha, J. (2001),”Planning and Unplanned apparel purchase typology and related variables”,
unpublished thesis, Seoul National University, Seoul (consult Park link).
[5] Cobb, C. J. and Hoyer, W. D. (1986),”Planned Versus Impulse Purchase Behavior”, Journal of
Retailing, Vol. 62 No.4, pp. 384-409. Retrieved, May 16, 2007, from http://web.ebscohost.com
[6] Dittmar, H. and Drury, J. (2000), “Self-image – is it bag? A qualitative comparison between
ordinary and excessive consumers”, Journal of Economic Psychology, Vol. 21 No. 2, pp. 109142.

[7] Du Pont, D. N and Company. (1965), Consumer Buying Habits Studies, Wilmington, DE Du
Pont De Nemours and Company.
[8] Economic Survey of Pakistan, (2006-07). “Inflation,” Chapter no 08, (pp. 119-144). Retrieved,
June 17, 2007, from http://www.finance.gov.pk
[9] Fairhurst, A. E., Good, L. K. and Gentry, J. W. (1989), “Fashion involvement: an instrument
validation procedure”, Clothing and Textiles Research Journal, Vol. 7 No3, pp. 10-14.
[10] Federal Bureau of Statistics, Table of House Hold Income Distribution in Pakistan. Retrieved,
June 17, 2007, from http://www.pakistan.gov.pk/statistics-division/index.jsp
[11] Freud, S. (1956), “Formulations on the Two Principles of Mental Functioning,” in The
Standard Edition of the complete Psychological Works of Sigmund and A. Freud, eds. London:
Hogarth.
[12] Han, Y. K., Morgan, G. A., Kotsiopulos, A. and Kang, P. J. (1991), “Impulse buying behaviour
of apparel purchases”, Clothing and Textile Research Journal, Vol.9 No. 3, pp. 15-21.
[13] Hausman, A. (2000), “A multi-method investigation of consumer motivations in impulse
buying behavior”, Journal of Consumer Marketing, Vol.17 No. 15, pp. 403-419.
[14] Kacen, J. J., and Lee, J. A. (2002), “The Influence of Culture on Consumer Impulse Buying
Behavior,” Journal of Consumer Impulse Buying Behavior, Vol. 12 (2), pp. 163-176.
[15] Ko, S. (1993), “The study of impulse buying of clothing products”, unpublished Master’s
thesis, Seoul National University, Seoul. (Consult Park link)
[16] Kollat, D. T, and Willett, Ronald. P. (1967), “Customer Impulse Purchasing Behavior,” Journal
of Marketing Research, 4 (February), pp. 21-31.
[17] Mai, N. T. T., Jung, K., Lantz, G. and Loeb, S. G. (2003), “An Exploratory Investigation into
Impulse Buying Behavior in a Transitional Economy: A Study of Urban Consumers in
Vietnam,” Journal of International Marketing, Vol. 11 No.2, pp. 13-35.
[18] Park, E. J., Kim, E. Y. and Forney, J. C. (2006),”A Structural model of Fashion-oriented
Impulse Buying Behavior”, Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management, Vol. 10 No. 4, pp.
433-446. Retrieved, May 16, 2007, from http://www.emeraldinsight.com/1361-2026.htm
[19] Piron, F. (1993), “A Comparison of Emotional Reactions Experienced by Planned, Unplanned
and Impulse Purchasers”, Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. 20, 341-344. Retrieved, May
16, 2007, from http://web.ebscohost.com
[20] Prasad, K. (1975),”Unplanned Buying in Two Retail Setting,” Journal of Retailing, 51 (Fall),
pp. 3-12.
[21] Rook, D. W. (1987),”The buying Impulse,” Journal of Consumer Research, Vol. 14 (2), pp.
189-199.
[22] Rook, D. W., and Fisher, R. J. (1995), “Normative Influences on Impulsive Buying Behavior,”
Journal of Consumer Research, Vol. 22 (3), pp. 305-413.
An Empirical Study of Consumer Impulse Buying Behavior in Local Markets 531
[23] Rook, D. W. and Gardner, M. P. (1993), “In the mood: impulse buying’s affective
antecedents”, Research in Consumer Behavior, Vol. 6, pp. 1-26.
[24] Seo, J., Hathcote, J. M. and Sweaney, A. L. (2001), “Causal-wear Shopping behavior of college
men in Georgia, USA”, Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management, Vol.5 No.3, pp.208222.

[25] Stern, H. (1962),” The Significance of Impulse Buying Today,” Journal of Marketing, Vol. 26
(April), pp. 59-62.
[26] Watson, D. and Tellegen, A. (1985), “Towards a consensus structure of mood”, Psychological
Bulletin, Vol. 98 No. 2, pp. 219-235.
[27] Weinberg, P. and Gottwald, W. (1982), “Impulsive consumer buying as a result of emotion”,
Journal of Business research, Vol. 10 No.1, pp. 43-57.
[28] William, J., and Dardis, R. (1972),”Shopping Behavior for Soft Goods and Marketing
Strategies,” Journal of Retailing, 48(Fall), 32-41.
[29] Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. (2007),”Definition of Impulse Buying,” Wikipedia home
page. Retrieved, May 17, 2007, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/impulse_buying
[30] Youn, S. and Faber, R. J. (2000),”Impulse buying: its relation to personality traits and cues”,
Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. 27, pp. 179-185.

Emotional Intelligence of Malaysian Teachers: Implications on Workplace Productivity

Emotional Intelligence of
Malaysian Teachers: Implications
on Workplace Productivity
Noriah Mohd Ishak, Ramlee Mustapha,
Zuria Mahmud, and Siti Rahayah Ariffin
The National University of Malaysia
Abstract
Recent literature has shown that there is an increasing number of employers
who  begin  to  recognize  the  importance  of  emotional  intelligence
(emotional quotient; EQ) in the workplace. Emotional intelligence is the
ability to sense,  understand, and  effectively  use the power of emotions
to guide, motivate, and even in uence others. Emotional outbursts in the
workplace can negatively affect the organization in terms of productivity,
representation,  and  profitability.  Thus,  the  purpose  of  this  study  was
twofold: (a) to explore domains and subdomains of emotional intelligence
specific to Malaysian context, and (b) to examine the relationship among
the  domains  of  emotional  intelligence  of  Malaysian teachers and  their
implications on  workplace  productivity. Results  from the study suggest
additional domains (spirituality and maturity) and subdomains (intention,
interest,  compassion,  and  helping  others)  that  describe  emotional
intelligence of the Malaysian teachers.
Introduction
An  increasing  number  of  employers  have  begun  to  recognize  that
competencies  associated  with  emotional  intelligence  are  crucial  in
a  workplace  (Cherniss  &  Goleman,  2001;  Cooper  &  Sawaf,  1996;
Weisenger,  1998).  Emotional  intelligence  is  commonly  defined  as  the
ability to sense,  understand, and  effectively  use the power of emotions
to guide, motivate, and even in uence others (Salovey & Mayer, 1990).
Emotional intelligence in the form of emotional adaptability and agility
is  essential  to  enhance  personal  and  leadership  qualities.  According  to
Goleman (1995, p. 1), “the rules for work are changing” and performance
is rarely judged by  one’s ability  to complete a task but by  the  ability to
empower oneself and others.
Emotional  intelligence  is not  a new concept. The  construct  has  been
 
8
Emotional Intelligence of Malaysian Teachers
studied  by  scientists  using  varied  terminologies.  Darwin’s  early  work
on the importance  of  emotional expression  for  survival  and  adaptation
has  opened  a  new  frontier  on  emotional  intelligence  (1872/1965).  In
1937, Thorndike used the term
social intelligence
to describe emotional
quotient  (EQ;  Thorndike  &  Stein,  1937),  whereas  Wechsler  used  the
term
nonintellective
to  refer to  affective,  personal,  and  social  domains
(Wechsler,  1940).  However,  the  work  of  these  pioneers  was  largely
forgotten or overlooked until  1983 when Gardner  began to put  forward
the  theory  of  “multiple  intelligence”  (Cherniss,  2000).  Gardner  (1983)
conceptualized “emotional intelligence” as constituting intrapersonal and
interpersonal intelligence. Salovey and Mayer (1990) were the first to use
the expression “emotional intelligence.” Goleman (1995, 1998) took one
step forward to link the theory to job performance. Other researchers have
studied the relationship between EQ and academic achievement (Drago,
2004),  gender  (Rivera  Cruz,  2004),  leadership  (Skinner  &  Spurgeon,
2005; Stubbs,  2005; Wong  & Law,  2002),  employment  (Beekie, 2004;
Eden & Aviram, 1993; Jacobs, 2004), personality (Bar-On, 1988; Jordan
& Troth,  2002; Lopez,  Salovey,  &  Straus, 2003), and  religiosity  (Paek,
2004)
Regarding the relationship between cognition and emotion, there is a
growing understanding based on the neuroscience research that cognition
and emotions are interwoven in mental life especially in complex decision
making, self-awareness, self-regulation, motivation, empathy, and social
interaction (Davidson, Jackson, & Kalin, 2000; Emmerling & Goleman,
2003; Hung, 2003). However, literature seems to suggest that we can no
longer equate high cognitive ability with career success. Several studies
have shown that IQ by itself is a poor predictor of job performance. Hunter
and Hunter (1984) estimated that at best IQ accounts for about 25% of the
variance. Sternberg (1996) has pointed out that studies vary and that 10%
may be a more realistic estimate. In some studies, IQ accounts for as little
as 4% of the variance (Cherniss, 2000). Cherniss cited the Sommerville
study  as  an  example. The  40-year longitudinal  study was  conducted  to
trace the life  of 450 boys who grew up  in Sommerville, Massachusetts.
Two-thirds  of  the  boys  were  from  welfare  families;  one-third  had  IQs
below  90. The  study  found  that  IQ had  little  relation  to how  well  they
did at work. What made the significant difference were their  childhood
abilities such as being able to manage frustration, control emotions, and
form positive interpersonal relations (Snarey & Vaillant, 1985). Another
study has shown that social and emotional abilities were four times more
important than IQ in determining professional success and prestige (Fiest
& Barron, 1996).
This  is  not to conclude, however, that IQ is less important. It  is  just
to  emphasize  that  IQ  is  not  the  sole  predictor  of  job  performance  and
 
International Journal of Vocational Education and Training •
Vol. 14 • No. 2
9
work  productivity.  Thus,  innovative  employers  should  look  beyond
cognitive  and  academic  credentials  when  screening  future  employees.
Goleman  (1995,  2001)  asserts  that  outstanding  workers  usually  have
an  edge  over  others  in  their  ability  to  control  their  emotions.  These
stupendous individuals  can endure  complex tasks  without  experiencing
extreme burnout, and they  are known to be  team players who can work
exceptionally well with their coworkers to achieve organizational goals.
Studies abound that show individuals with high emotional intelligence
make use of their emotions to guide them in their thinking and behaviors
(Bar-On,  1988;  Beekie,  2004;  Skinner  &  Spurgeon,  2005;  Weisenger,
1998). They  are  able  to  relate  to  others with  compassion  and  empathy,
and  have well-developed social skills. They work best  as team players,
and normally would take the responsibility of leading the team to meet the
organizational goals. These individuals also use their emotional awareness
to direct their actions and behaviors that help them become better leaders.
Nevertheless,  some  people  have  difficulty  managing  their  emotions,
especially  when faced with  emotionally  volatile situations (Weisenger).
The inability to manage and communicate emotions effectively can lead
to unresolved and repetitive  con icts among employees and  in the long
run that can cause severe burnout and diminished productivity.
One  of  the  critical  workplaces  is  school.  Based  on  international
comparison,  it  has  been  established  that  teaching  serves  as  one  of  the
most stressful professions (Antoniou, 2000; Kyriacou, 1987; Manthei &
Solman, 1988). Literature seems to indicate that prolonged occupational
stress can lead to both mental and emotional ill-health, which in turn could
affect the quality of teaching (Antoniou, 2000; Borg, Riding, & Falzon,
1991;  Kyriacou  &  Sutcliffe,  1978;  Travers  &  Cooper,  1996).  Heavy
workload, students’ disciplinary problems, and poor working conditions
have been identified as major factors that could lead to teachers’ burnout
(Borg  et  al.  1991;  Guglielmi  &  Tatrow,  1998;  Kyriacou  &  Sutcliffe,
1978). A stressful working environment can bring  a negative impact on
the teachers’ psychological well-being and can cause discontentment and
emotional outbursts or emotional fallouts.
Arnold  (2005)  argues  that  effective  teachers  are  those  who  display
empathy  toward  others  and  have  the  ability  to  interact  harmoniously
with  their  environment.  This  idea  supports  the  concept  of  facilitative
teachers suggested by Grasher (1996). Facilitative teachers are those who
empathize with their  students and are sensitive to  their students’  needs.
These teachers  are willing to reach out  to  their students, and  inevitably
become the students’ role model. In line with this argument, findings from
a  study  conducted  by  Ishak  and  Mohamad  (2003)  on  student–teacher
attachment and  its  effect on  teachers’  commitment toward the teaching
profession, demonstrate that teachers who show care and concern toward
 
10
Emotional Intelligence of Malaysian Teachers
their students have had higher commitment to their teaching profession.
These  teachers  were  more  sensitive  to  their  students’  needs  and  were
willing to listen to their students’ grievances. Subsequently, not only the
teachers’  commitment  is  increased,  but also the students’  motivation  to
learn in the classroom.
Empirical research in Malaysia shows that teachers’ emotional fallouts
at their workplace was mainly due to the disruptive behavior by students
who had difficulty following instruction and who displayed disrespectful
behaviors  toward  their  teachers  (Idris,  2003;  Ishak,  1995).  A  study
conducted  by  Ishak  (1995)  shows  that  besides  the  disruptive  students,
heavy workload that the teachers must bear (including other tasks besides
teaching)  also  contributed  toward  teachers’  high  levels  of  stress.  Such
phenomenon  can  produce  emotionally  laden behaviors  among teachers
that can affect their job productivity. Work or job productivity in this study
was simply defined as work performance of the teachers as appraised by
the school administrators.
A  study  conducted  by  Idris  (2003)  on  the  Malaysian  teachers’
personality profile suggests that the teachers under study lack of positive
emotions  and  thus,  they were unable to  transmit their positive  feelings
toward  their  students.  The  inability  to  transmit  positive  feelings  can
trigger disruptive behaviors among students. Assuming that the teachers
were the students’ role models and the students were more likely to react
to  teachers’  behaviors,  it  is  argued  that  the  teachers’  personalities  and
behaviors  toward  the  students  could  affect  the  students’  psychological
and  emotional  states.  However,  few  studies  have  been  conducted  to
measure  and validate  the  EQ of  Malaysian  teachers.  Thus, it  is  critical
to conduct this study to  examine the relationship among the domains of
emotional intelligence of Malaysian  teachers  and their implications on
workplace productivity.
Purpose of the Study
Based  on  the  literature,  this  study  hypothesizes  that  teachers  who
are  conscious  of  their  own  feelings,  who  can  regulate  their  feelings
positively,  motivate  others,  show  empathy,  love,  and  care  for  the
students, and  interact  positively  with  students  will  demonstrate  higher
emotional  intelligence. Thus,  this  study  aims  to  answer  the  following
research questions:
1. What  are  the  factors  that  enhance  positive  emotions  (and  thereby
increase teachers’ emotional intelligence)?
2. Do these factors correlate with each other?
 
International Journal of Vocational Education and Training •
Vol. 14 • No. 2
11
3. Do  teachers  teaching  in  different  types  of  schools—boarding
or  daily  schools—differ  in  their  ability  to  promote  positive
emotion?
4. What are the implications of the teachers’ emotional intelligence on
workplace productivity?
Theoretical Framework of Emotional Intelligence
In this  study  we assume  emotional intelligence is  synonymous  with
EQ. Thus, we used the terms interchangeably. Salovey and Mayer (1990)
first  coined  the  term
emotional  intelligence
and  most  psychologists
accepted  the  concept  after  Goleman  successfully  published  his
book,
Emotional  Intelligence,
in  1995.  The
Encyclopedia  of  Applied
Psychology
(Spielberger,  2004)  stated  that  there  are  currently  three
major  conceptual  models of EQ:  (a) the  Salovey-Mayer  model  (Mayer
& Salovey, 1997), which defines the construct as the ability to perceive,
understand, manage,  and  use  emotions to  facilitate  thinking, measured
by an  ability-based  measure  (Mayer,  Salovey,  &  Caruso,  2002); (b) the
Goleman model (1995, 1998), which views this construct as a wide array
of competencies and skills that drive managerial performance, measured
by multirater assessment (Boyatzis, Goleman, & HayGroup, 2001); and
(c)  Bar-On  model  (1997a,  1997b)  which  describes  a  cross-section  of
interrelated  emotional  and  social  competencies,  skills,  and  facilitators
that  in uence  intelligent  behavior,  measured  by  self-report  (Bar-On  &
Handley, 2003a, 2003b).
This  study  used  the  Goleman  model  as  the  theoretical  framework
because  the  model  relates  EQ  to  work  performance.  According  to
Goleman  (1995,  p.  28),  “emotional  competence  is  a  learned  capability
based on emotional intelligence that results in outstanding performance at
work.” He argued that emotional intelligence determines one’s potential
for  learning  the  practical  skills  that  are  based  on  two  competencies—
personal  and  social  competencies.  Personal  competency  has  three
domains:  self-awareness,  self-regulation,  and  self-motivation,  whereas
the  social  competency  comprised  two  domains,  namely,  empathy
and  social  skills.  Self-awareness  is  defined  as  one’s  ability  to  know
one’s  internal  states, preferences,  resources, and intuitions (Goleman,
1995).  It  has  three  subdomains:  emotional  awareness,  accurate  self-
assessment, and self-confidence.  The  second domain,  self-regulation,
is  marked  by  one’s  ability  to  manage  one’s  internal  states, impulses,
and  resources.  The  indicators  that  depict  this  ability  are self-control,
trustworthiness,  conscientiousness,  adaptability,  and  innovation.  The
third  domain  that  is  self-motivation  illustrates  emotional  tendencies
 
12
Emotional Intelligence of Malaysian Teachers
that  guide  or  facilitate  reaching  goals.  The  self-motivation  domain
consists of achievement drive, commitment, initiative, and optimism.
According to Goleman (1995), social competency is  the  individual’s
ability to cope with relationships (personal as well as professional). This
competency  has  two  domains:  empathy  and  social  skills.  Empathy  is
our  awareness of other people’s  feelings,  needs,  and concerns.  It is  the
skill  of  perceiving  and  sensing  the  experience  and  feelings  of  another
person. The  five  subdomains  that  made up  empathy are: understanding
others,  developing  others,  service  orientation,  leveraging  diversity,
and  political  awareness.  Although  Holm  (1997)  sees  communication
as  part  of  empathy,  Goleman  (1998)  suggested  that  it  is  actually  one
of the components  of social  skills, which reveal  one’s  ability to induce
desirable  responses  in  others. The eight  subdomains that  explain  social
skills  are  in uence,  communication,  con ict  management,  leadership,
change  catalyst,  building  bonds,  collaborating–cooperation,  and  team
capabilities.
Weisenger (1998) defined emotional intelligence as the intelligent use
of emotion. According  to him, emotional  intelligence  consists  of  four
basic elements. The first  element  is  the ability  to  accurately  perceive,
appraise,  and  express  emotions.  The  second  element  involves  the
ability  to  access  or  generate  feelings  on  demand  and  it  can  facilitate
understanding  of  oneself  and  others.  The  third  element  is  the  ability
to  understand  emotions  and  the  knowledge  that  derives  from  them.
The  final  element  of  emotional  intelligence  is  the  ability  to  regulate
emotions.  Weisenger  also  claims  that  emotional  intelligence  is  not
a  trait;  therefore,  it  could  be  nurtured,  developed,  and  augmented.
Subsequently,  one  can  increase  his  or  her  emotional  intelligence  by
learning  and  practicing  the  skills  and  capabilities  that  encompass
emotional  intelligence. Although  there  exists  a  number  of  theoretical
frameworks  on  emotional intelligence, this  study  used the  conceptual
framework suggested by Goleman (1995).
Methodology
Participants
The present exploratory study was  part of  a  bigger study to examine
emotional  intelligence  of  the  Malaysian  workforce.  The  study  was
made  possible by a grant provided  by the  Malaysian  government under
its  Intensified  Research  in  Priority  Areas  (IRPA)  project.  The  study
involved  two  phases. The  first  phase  was  to  explore  the  predictor  and
criterion  variables  of  emotional  intelligence  of  Malaysian  teachers.  A
 
International Journal of Vocational Education and Training •
Vol. 14 • No. 2
13
focus  group and in-depth interview methods  were employed in  order to
identify the main domains of emotional intelligence within the Malaysian
context. The  second  phase employed  a cross-sectional design that used
a  questionnaire  as  instrument  to  collect  the  data  needed  to  answer  the
research questions.
One  hundred  and  eighty  secondary  (180)  schools  teachers  were
involved in  the first phase  of the study  (men  = 73,  women  = 107),  and
640  teachers  (men  =  286,  women  =  354)  were  involved  in  the  second
phase of this study (total = 820). Out of 640 teachers, 338 were teaching
at  the Malaysian boarding schools, whereas the remaining  302 teachers
were teaching at the Malaysian daily schools. The respondents’ ages were
between 25 and 45 years old. The majority of the teachers were from the
Malay  ethnic  group,  whereas  the  remaining  numbers  were  from  other
ethnic groups (e.g., Chinese, Indian, and others). This ethnic composition
is a typical of any Malaysian school. The teachers were selected using a
stratified random sampling method based on the directories of Malaysian
teachers obtained from the Ministry  of Education and  Trust  Council of
the People (MARA).
Instrumentation
In  the  first  phase,  two  different  sets  of  interview  protocols  (focus
groups and in-depth interviews) were used to explore attributing factors
that  contribute  to  the  domains  of  emotional  intelligence.  The  in-depth
interview protocol has 28 questions that enabled interviewers to explore
more  deeply  the  participants’  ideas  about  emotional  intelligence  and
factors  that  contribute  toward  the  development  of  healthy  emotions.
The focus group protocol has five sets of open-ended questions arranged
consecutively (the total number of questions is 38). Focus group questions
help  the  researchers  to explore  new domains of  emotional intelligence.
Data from the first phase of the study were validated using several methods
suggested by Yin (1994). The  methods used were: (a)  established  chain
of  evidence  (construct  validity),  (b)  reviewed  transcript  interview  by
informants (construct validity), (c) developed pattern matching (internal
validity), (d) used replication logic (external validity), and (e) developed
case study database (reliability).
Data Collection
In the second phase of the study, data collected in  the first phase was
used to develop a new EQ instrument known as the Malaysian Emotional
Quotient Inventory (MEQI).  This instrument is divided into 11 sections
 
14
Emotional Intelligence of Malaysian Teachers
(A  to  K).  Sections A,  C, D, F,  G,  J, and I consist of  items that measure
domains of the perceived emotional intelligence. The domains are self-
awareness  (35  items),  self-regulation  (40  items),  self-motivation  (36
items),  empathy  (45  items),  social  skills  (52  items),  spirituality  (9
items), and maturity (6 items). These  items were developed on  a five-
point  Likert  scale  (
strongly  agree
to
strongly  disagree
).  Sections  B,
E,  H,  and  K  are  items  that  measure  emotional  performance.  Section
B  displays  pictures  that  depict  facial  expression  and  respondents
were  asked  to  identify  the  expression  according  to  how  they  feel.
Findings  from  a  study  conducted  by  Davies,  Stankov,  and  Roberts
(1998)  indicate  that  identification  of  “correct”  facial  expression  is  a
more effective method of measuring emotions when compared to other
measures  such  as  self-report.  Section  E  exhibits  panoramic  pictures,
and  respondents were  asked to  indicate their  feelings toward  each  of
the pictures. Section H consists of open-ended questions pertaining to
respondents’ ability to self-regulate in a given situation. In this section,
respondents were asked to rate their responses according to the points
given in the instruction. And finally, Section K illustrates 11 pictures of
mazes. Respondents were asked to progressively complete each  maze
according  to  its  level  of difficulty.  The  263  items  in  the  MEQI were
developed  from  data  collected  during  in-depth  interviews  as  well  as
focus group interviews. Reliability analysis conducted on each domain
revealed  values  of  Cronbach’s  coefficient  alpha  between  0.87  and
0.97.
Results
Data  from  the  first  phase  of  the  study  was  transcribed,  coded,  and
analyzed  using  Nu*dist  software.  All  five  domains  suggested  by
Goleman  (1995)  emerged  throughout  the  interviews. The  domains  are
(a) self-awareness, (b) self-regulation, (c) self-motivation, (d)  empathy,
and  (e)  social  skills. Goleman  (1995)  suggested  three  subdomains  that
explained emotional awareness, and these are: (a) emotional awareness,
(b) accurate self-assessment, and (c) self-confidence. However, findings
from  the  study  suggested  an  additional  subdomain  to  explain  self-
awareness.  The  new  subdomain  was  identified  as  “intention.”  The
numbers  of subdomains for self-regulation  remain  the same, that is, (a)
self-control, (b)  trustworthiness, (c) conscientiousness, (d)  adaptability,
and  (e)  innovation. An  additional  subdomain  was  also  found  for  self-
motivation,  which  is  “interest”  (see  Table  1  for  MEQI  domains  and
subdomains).