IBNU C.R
Minggu, 20 November 2011
Selasa, 15 November 2011
An Empirical Study of Consumer Impulse Buying Behavior in Local Markets
Muhammad Ali Tirmizi
PH.D Candidate, FUIEMS, Foundation University, Islamabad, Pakistan
E-mail: m5alitahir@gmail.com
Kashif-Ur-Rehman
Associate Professor, Iqra University, Islamabad, Pakistan
E-mail: dr.kashifurrehman@gmail.com
M. Iqbal Saif
Head of the Department, Management Sciences, FUIEMS, Foundation
University, Islamabad, Pakistan
E-mail: drmisaif@gmail.com
Abstract
This paper investigates the relationship between independent variables which are
shopping lifestyle of consumers, fashion involvement of consumers, pre-decision stage and
post-decision stage of consumer purchase behavior with the attitudinal and behavioral
aspects of impulse buying behavior. This study attempts to explore the association exists
between the variables involved, by tapping the responses of 165 respondents from higher
income group in the area of Rawalpindi and Islamabad. The major findings of the study
demonstrated an overall weak association of the set of independent variables with the
dependent variable but, the in-depth analysis found that pre-decision stage of consumer
purchase behavior is the only variable that resulted into strong association with the impulse
buying behavior. It’s true that young people more often get attracted to products displayed
on store shelves and has greater tendency of impulse buying behavior but results of this
paper showed no association of impulse buying in higher income group of young people
having prevalent impulse buying tendencies. This study reported new evidences in the field
of impulse buying behavior of consumers pertaining to the local markets of the twin cities
of Pakistan.
1. Introduction
Stores are the place where buyers buy products whether it’s planned or unplanned purchase. These
stores sell hundreds and thousands of products daily and consumers are consuming these products at
the cost of their income. It only dependents on the income of the person, that how much and how many
times he or she visits shopping stores to buy products. It is usually seen that buyers purchase products
which they have not planned and this phenomenon of unplanned purchasing is termed as impulse An Empirical Study of Consumer Impulse Buying Behavior in Local Markets 523
buying. In previous researches, researchers and scholars have tried to measure impulse purchasing of
different types of products in multiple shopping stores as it is reported by Bellenger et al. (1978); Du
Pont (1965); Kollat and Willett (1967), Prasad (1975); Williams and Dardis (1972).
In Pakistan there are four types of price indices; Consumer Price Index (CPI), Wholesales Price
Index (WPI), Sensitive Price Index (SPI) and GDP Deflator, which are used to calculate inflation.
Among these indicators, the major emphasis is on CPI as a measure of inflation, which covers 375
items in 71 markets of 35 cities of the country (Economic Survey, 2006-07). The average CPI value in
the period (1990-00) was 9.71 and it was 5.8 in (2000-07). It is also seen that the inflation rate in
lowest income group was 8.3 with the income ranging from below 3,000 up to 5,000 Rupees as
compared to the inflation rate of 7.3 in the upper income brackets having income of more than 12,000
Rupees. Hence, we can say with confidence that the purchasing capacities of households lying in upper
income bracket in Pakistan have increased as compared to lower income groups. Here it is essential to
quote the percentage shares of the income groups mentioned above. The 20% lower income group in
Pakistan holds 9.65 percent of the total income share and the 20% of the highest income group in
Pakistan holds 41.72% of the total income share where as rest goes to middle income group which is
48.63% comprising 60% of the total income group (Federal Bureau of Statistics, 2004-05).
These figures are quoted here to build a framework in which we further extend this study. Now,
the figures presented earlier demonstrated that there is a tendency of impulse buying in higher income
group in Pakistan as their income level clearly indicates this trend. In this study more than 80 percent
of the respondents (see annexure) were related to the higher income bracket having income greater than
12,000 Rupees per month. Increased disposable income as well as credit availability has resulted in
increased impulse buying habit among consumers in the retail environment as reported by Dittmar and
Drury (2000). In order to tap this behavior of impulse buying in the consumer, we have selected areas
of Rawalpindi and Islamabad to initiate our research. We are intending to investigate that whether
higher income group having income greater than 12,000 Rupees have planned or unplanned buying
behavior.
The basic questions we want to investigate in this research study are as follows:
Q1: What is the level of association between shopping life style and impulse buying behavior of
consumers of higher income group having disposable income, shopping in the area of
Rawalpindi and Islamabad?
Q2: What is the level of association between fashion involvement and impulse buying behavior
of consumers of higher income group having disposable income, shopping in the area of
Rawalpindi and Islamabad?
Q3: What is the level of association between pre-decision stage regarding purchasing and
impulse buying behavior of consumers of higher income group having disposable income,
shopping in the area of Rawalpindi and Islamabad?
Q4: What is the level of association between post-decision stage regarding purchasing and
impulse buying behavior of consumers of higher income group having disposable income,
shopping in the area of Rawalpindi and Islamabad?
2. Rationale of the Study
It is seen that shopping mall owners tried to exploit impulses, which are associated with the basic need
for instant satisfaction. A buyer in the shopping store might not specifically be shopping for the
confectionary goods like, sweets, chocolates, bubble gums, mints and biscuits. However, related
confectionary items displayed at prominent places will certainly attract buyer’s attention and trigger
impulse buying behavior in them. This phenomenon can easily be understood with the help of two
principles/forces as a part of psychological review of literature, which interprets impulses as the
consequences of these competing principles/forces. These principles are well presented in the papers of
Freud (1956) and Mai,et al.(2002). These principles are stated below:
524 Muhammad Ali Tirmizi, Kashif-ur-Rehman and M. Iqbal Saif
a. First, the pleasure principle
b. Second, the reality principle
The pleasure principle is related to immediate satisfaction felt by consumer whereas the reality
principle is related to delayed gratification. There is always an ongoing competition between these two
forces represented as principles within the buyer when they enter a shopping store with the intention to
buy. As a consequence impulse related behavior overcomes them because impulses are usually difficult
to resist and involve premeditated pleasurable experiences, as of study of Rook (1987).
In this paper we are interested in finding associations among variables (see Research model and
sub models) regarding spending of upper income group people regardless of linkages of these variables
to different impulse buying patterns related to diversified groups of buyers.
This paper will certainly add value to the existing knowledge base and simultaneously give us
courage to indulge in further advance researches in the field of management sciences. This study is also
useful for retailers and manufacturers who want to improve their understanding regarding consumer
impulse buying behavior.
3. Purpose of the Study
The purpose of the research study is to test the association of the independent variables that are;
shopping life style, fashion involvement, pre-decision stage, post-decision stage regarding consumer
purchasing with the dependent variable that is; impulse buying behavior of consumers who shop in the
area of Rawalpindi and Islamabad.
4. Literature Review
Marketing and consumer researchers over the period of forty years have tried to grasp the concept of
impulse buying and defined this terminology in their own perspectives, for which some research
findings are discussed here.
In a research conducted by Cobb and Hoyer (1986), impulse buying was defined as an
unplanned purchase and this definition can also be found in the research of Kollat and Willett (1967).
In another research by Rook (1987) reported that impulse buying usually takes place, when a consumer
feels a forceful motivation that turns into a desire to purchase a commodity instantly. Beatty and
Ferrell (1998) defined impulse buying as instantaneous purchase having no previous aim or objective
to purchase the commodity. Stern (1962) found that products bought on impulse are usually cheap.
Shopping lifestyle is defined as the behavior exhibited by purchaser with regard to the series of
personal responses and opinions about purchase of the products as reported by Cobb and Hoyer (1986).
They find that shopping life style and impulse buying behavior are closely related but only in the case
of impulse buyers. The study also states that impulse purchasers fell in the middle as of the
measurement tools used by the researchers, indicated that purchasers will not pick the first brand they
spotted in the shopping mall.
In researches conducted by Cha (2001); Han et al., (1991); Ko (1993) it is reported that impulse
buying behavior regarding fashion products are associated with patterns like chaste, repeated emotions
as well as fashion-oriented impulse buying behaviors. These facts were also quoted by Park et al.
(2006). The definition of fashion involvement basically relates to apparel associated with fashionable
outfits. The findings of Han et al. (1991) quoted in response to fashion involvement of consumers, that
it might enhance fashion-oriented impulse buying behaviors among those who habitually wear fashion
outfits. Fairhurst et al. (1989) and Seo et al. (2001) found a direct association among fashion
involvement and apparels purchase. Positive emotions are defined as affects and moods, which
determine intensity of consumer decision-making reported by Watson and Tellegen (1985). Park
(2006) found a positive relationship of positive emotions, fashion involvement and fashion-oriented
impulse buying with the overall impulse buying behavior of the consumers. Ko (1993) reported that
An Empirical Study of Consumer Impulse Buying Behavior in Local Markets 525
positive emotions may result into fashion related impulse purchase. The researches of Beatty and
Ferrell (1998); Husman (2000); Rook and Gardner (1993); Youn and Faber, (2000) found that
emotions strongly influence buying behaviors, which result into consumer impulse buying. Babin and
Babin (2001) found that in stores consumer’s purchasing intentions and spending can largely be
influenced by emotions. These emotions may be specific to certain things for example, the features of
the items, customer self interest, consumer’s gauge of evaluating items and the importance they give to
their purchasing at a store.
Piron (1993) found that the total of nine items, a combination of pre-decision and post-decision
stages indicators, resulted into high significant differences and the values of correlations for unplanned
purchases done by consumers resulted into higher value as compared to purchases done by consumers
on impulse. Their study indicated that out of total questionnaires distributed which were 361, 53 were
unplanned purchasers and 145 were impulse buyers (total= 198).
4.1. Research Model
Shopping lifestyle of consumer
Fashion involvement of the
consumer
Pre-decision stage of the
consumer regarding buying
products
Post-decision stage of the
consumer regarding buying
products
α = 0.42
α = 0.451
α = 0.653
α = 0.552
α = 0.710
Attitudinal and
Behavioral aspect of
Impulse Buying
Tendency and
Frequency of
consumers
The above diagrammatical research model can be written in a mathematical form and the
mathematical model of this research is stated below:
4.2. Hypothesis
The hypotheses formulated after review of the literature are given below:
H1: Shopping lifestyle of the consumers has a strong association with the impulse buying behavior
of the consumers.
H2: Fashion involvement of consumers has a strong association with the impulse buying behavior
of the consumers.
H3: Pre-decision stage of the consumer intending to buy a product has a strong association with the
impulse buying behavior of the consumers.
H4: post-decision stage of the consumer who has bought the product has a strong association with
the impulse buying behavior of the consumers.
The testing of the hypotheses is confined to the primary data collected from the area of
Islamabad and Rawalpindi (the twin cities).
5. Methodology
5.1. Sample
The consumers, who shop in general stores, departmental stores, boutiques, shopping malls, small
retail outlets, etc, in the area of Islamabad and Rawalpindi were taken as the population for this study.
A convenient sample (non-probability sampling method) of 165 consumers was pooled up for the
current study in which respondents of this study were requested to complete the questionnaire on
voluntary basis and not a single attempt was made to chase non-respondents. Among the respondents,
74.1% were related to the income group of more than 20,000 Rupees, 26.1% related to the income
group of less than 20,000 Rupees, 47.9% were male and 52.1% were female, 77% were between the
age of (20-29), 3% were between the age of (50-59), 80% were unmarried and 18.2% were married,
53.3% were having masters degree and 33.3% were having bachelor’s degree (see annexure).
5.2. Instrumentation
The instrument contained sub-parts. These sub-parts of the instrument were retrieved from different
previous studies. The behavioral aspect of impulse buying in which items were arranged to measure the
impulse buying tendency was adopted from the paper of Rook and Fisher (1995) and then further
modified. Whereas, the attitudinal aspect of impulse buying in which items were arranged to measure
frequency was adopted from the paper of Kacen and Lee (2002) and then further modified. This scale
can also be found in the study of Mai et al. (2002). The sub-part of the questionnaire regarding
consumer lifestyle was adopted from the paper of Cobb and Hoyer (1986), where items are measured
on 5-point likert scale ranging from (1 = definitely disagree, 5 = definitely agree). The sub-part of the
questionnaire regarding fashion involvement was adopted from the paper of Park et al. (2006), where
items are measured on 7-point likert scale ranging from (1 = strongly disagree, 7 = strongly agree). The
An Empirical Study of Consumer Impulse Buying Behavior in Local Markets 527
sub-part of the questionnaire regarding pre-decision and post-decision stage of consumer purchasing
was adopted from the paper of Piron (1993), where items are measured on 5-point likert scale ranging
from (1 = definitely disagree, 5 = definitely agree). After collecting 100 responses the reliability of the
instrument was checked by the help of Statistical Package for Social Sciences. The value of
Cronbach’s Alpha was 0.710, which confirmed the reliability of the instrument and then further
responses up to 165 were collected. This instrument basically comprised of four parts in which
questions were distributed regarding, Consumer lifestyle, fashion involvement, pre-decision stage and
post-decision stage of consumer purchasing.
5.3. Procedure
The data collected was by means of well developed, adopted scale having four parts. This instrument
was further modified according to the needs of the current study. All of the questionnaires were
distributed among the respondents in the area of Rawalpindi and Islamabad personally by the
researchers. Total of 200 questionnaires were distributed, but 165 questionnaires were returned. Thus,
questionnaires recovery rate equaled 82 percent. The data was collected in the time frame of 20 days
and then responses were fed into the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 15 for
analysis and evaluation. Multiple regression analysis was used as a statistical test to determine the
degree of relationship between the variables involved in this study (Mai et al., 2002).
6. Results and Discussion
6.1. Results
The data presented in table 2, shows the results extracted on the basis of multiple regression to find the
association level between the Independent variables and the dependent variable.
The testing of hypotheses developed earlier revealed the following results after which the
mathematical model of this research has been modified:
The above modification of the mathematical model shows that hypothesis 1, 2 and 4 are
rejected based on their weak associations among the variables involved (p > 0.05). Hypothesis 3 is only
accepted based on the strong association among the variables involved (p < 0.05).
Table 2: (Beta Coefficients, Standard error in parenthesis, t-Value in Brackets and P- Values in italics)
Constant IV-1 IV-2 IV-3 IV-4 R Square F-Statistics
1.328 .123 .076 .279 .125 .302 17.324
(0.340) (0.093) (0.041) (0.060) (0.084)
[3.908] [1.320] [1.837] [4.618] [1.494]
.000 .189 .068 .000 .137 .000
Result of Hypothesis
H1 H2 H3 H4
Testing
Rejected Rejected Accepted Rejected - -
Legend: Constant: Attitudinal and Behavioral aspect of Impulse Buying Tendency and Frequency of consumers
IV-1: Shopping lifestyle of consumer
IV-2: Fashion involvement of the consumer
IV-3: Pre-decision stage of the consumer regarding buying products
IV-4: Post-decision stage of the consumer regarding buying products
The results reveal that independent variable of pre-decision stage of the consumer regarding
buying products account variation in the dependent variables with t-value [4.618] that is significant at
(p < 0.05), where as independent variables; shopping lifestyle of consumer, fashion involvement of the
consumer and post-decision stage of the consumers regarding buying products account no variation in
c, t
528 Muhammad Ali Tirmizi, Kashif-ur-Rehman and M. Iqbal Saif
the dependent variable with t-values that are not significant at (p > 0.05). We found that there is
positive significant impact of these independent variables on the dependent variable (F = 17.324)(p <
0.05). The value of Beta for all the independent variables shows a positive association within the model
of coefficients. The value of (R-Square = 0.302) and (R = 0.550) predicting a moderate relationship
between the set of independent variables and the dependent variable with the reduced error of
prediction by 30.2 percent.
6.2. Discussion
A positive relationship of fashion involvement with the impulse buying behavior of the consumers was
reported by Park (2006). Where as, in our study, statistics showed a negative association between
fashion involvement and attitudinal and behavioral aspects of impulse buying. Here, according to the
statistical interpretation of results fashion involvement can’t be taken as impulse buying because
consumers having fashion interests, if it is the case, usually buy branded products of high quality and
style and like to purchase fashion apparels from their specified shops or boutiques.
The study of Coob and Hoyer (1986) reported a strong association between shopping life style
and impulse buying behavior. But, in our study shopping lifestyle is negatively associated with the
overall impulse buying behavior which is evident from the fact that majority of the consumers are
regular buyers because 53.3% of them hold masters degrees and can plan their purchases. These buyers
usually buy from routine store or shops and mostly avoid impulse buying.
The statistics of table 2, showed that there is a positive relationship between pre-decision stage
of consumer purchase and impulse buying behavior which can be supported by the study of Piron
(1993), where they found high significance difference and association for the total of nine items
combining pre-decision and post-decision stage of consumer purchasing with impulse buying.
Whereas, deviation in the statistical results are found in the case of post-decision stage of consumer’s
purchasing behavior.
Hence, According to the results of the analysis, young people having age between (20-29
years), holding master or bachelor degree and belong to a household having income greater than
12,000 Rupees are wise spenders because they plan their spending, have less fashion involvement as
table-3 shows that among 165 respondents majority dress for comfort not fashion. But, this higher
income group of young people have behavioral tendency of impulse buying at pre-decision stage of
buying, which is evident from the results of table-2. Here, it is imperative to mention that in Pakistan
young people using live in a joint family system.
Table 3: Response of respondents on an item regarding fashion involvement
Valid
I usually dress for fashion not comfort, if I must choose between two (N=165)
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent
Strongly disagree 35 212 21.2 21.2
Very disagree 33 20.0 20.0 41.2
Disagree 20 12.1 12.1 53.3
Neither agree nor disagree 21 12.7 12.7 66.1
Agree 20 12.1 12.1 78.2
Very agree 20 12.1 12.1 90.3
Strongly agree 16 9.7 9.7 100.0
Total 165 100.0 100.0
7. Conclusion
The results of this research study clearly indicate that there exits a weak association between consumer
lifestyle, fashion involvement and post-decision stage of consumer’s purchasing behavior with the
impulse buying behavior including the attitudinal as well as behavioral aspects of the consumers
An Empirical Study of Consumer Impulse Buying Behavior in Local Markets 529
buying behavior. Pre-decision stage of consumer’s purchasing behavior established strong association
with the impulse buying behavior of the consumers.
So, it is established through this research that consumers purchasing products in the area of
Islamabad and Rawalpindi plan their purchases, having shopping lifestyle related to planned purchases
and their post-decisions are also not guilty. The pre-decision stage of the purchasing associate these
buyers with unplanned or impulse buying because these days stores are full of variety of products and a
buyer can easily get interested in purchasing a product which appeals him or her while shopping the
planned list of products and here pleasure principle comes into play.
8. Further research
There is a need to conduct research regarding personality characteristics of consumers and find their
impact on the impulse buying behavior in Pakistan, for which differences can be compared if research
is conducted separately in the groups of male and female consumers. This proposed research can bring
to surface the true association of personality characteristics of the consumers having impulse buying
behavior and will also facilitate in identifying the main influential psychological factors accelerating
the impulse buying behavior in consumers and it will definitely help practitioners in improving their
marketing strategies regarding products sales.
530 Muhammad Ali Tirmizi, Kashif-ur-Rehman and M. Iqbal Saif
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4.2. Hypothesis
Emotional Intelligence of Malaysian Teachers: Implications on Workplace Productivity
Emotional Intelligence of
Malaysian Teachers: Implications
on Workplace Productivity
Noriah Mohd Ishak, Ramlee Mustapha,
Zuria Mahmud, and Siti Rahayah Ariffin
The National University of Malaysia
Abstract
Recent literature has shown that there is an increasing number of employers
who begin to recognize the importance of emotional intelligence
(emotional quotient; EQ) in the workplace. Emotional intelligence is the
ability to sense, understand, and effectively use the power of emotions
to guide, motivate, and even in uence others. Emotional outbursts in the
workplace can negatively affect the organization in terms of productivity,
representation, and profitability. Thus, the purpose of this study was
twofold: (a) to explore domains and subdomains of emotional intelligence
specific to Malaysian context, and (b) to examine the relationship among
the domains of emotional intelligence of Malaysian teachers and their
implications on workplace productivity. Results from the study suggest
additional domains (spirituality and maturity) and subdomains (intention,
interest, compassion, and helping others) that describe emotional
intelligence of the Malaysian teachers.
Introduction
An increasing number of employers have begun to recognize that
competencies associated with emotional intelligence are crucial in
a workplace (Cherniss & Goleman, 2001; Cooper & Sawaf, 1996;
Weisenger, 1998). Emotional intelligence is commonly defined as the
ability to sense, understand, and effectively use the power of emotions
to guide, motivate, and even in uence others (Salovey & Mayer, 1990).
Emotional intelligence in the form of emotional adaptability and agility
is essential to enhance personal and leadership qualities. According to
Goleman (1995, p. 1), “the rules for work are changing” and performance
is rarely judged by one’s ability to complete a task but by the ability to
empower oneself and others.
Emotional intelligence is not a new concept. The construct has been
8
Emotional Intelligence of Malaysian Teachers
studied by scientists using varied terminologies. Darwin’s early work
on the importance of emotional expression for survival and adaptation
has opened a new frontier on emotional intelligence (1872/1965). In
1937, Thorndike used the term
social intelligence
to describe emotional
quotient (EQ; Thorndike & Stein, 1937), whereas Wechsler used the
term
nonintellective
to refer to affective, personal, and social domains
(Wechsler, 1940). However, the work of these pioneers was largely
forgotten or overlooked until 1983 when Gardner began to put forward
the theory of “multiple intelligence” (Cherniss, 2000). Gardner (1983)
conceptualized “emotional intelligence” as constituting intrapersonal and
interpersonal intelligence. Salovey and Mayer (1990) were the first to use
the expression “emotional intelligence.” Goleman (1995, 1998) took one
step forward to link the theory to job performance. Other researchers have
studied the relationship between EQ and academic achievement (Drago,
2004), gender (Rivera Cruz, 2004), leadership (Skinner & Spurgeon,
2005; Stubbs, 2005; Wong & Law, 2002), employment (Beekie, 2004;
Eden & Aviram, 1993; Jacobs, 2004), personality (Bar-On, 1988; Jordan
& Troth, 2002; Lopez, Salovey, & Straus, 2003), and religiosity (Paek,
2004)
Regarding the relationship between cognition and emotion, there is a
growing understanding based on the neuroscience research that cognition
and emotions are interwoven in mental life especially in complex decision
making, self-awareness, self-regulation, motivation, empathy, and social
interaction (Davidson, Jackson, & Kalin, 2000; Emmerling & Goleman,
2003; Hung, 2003). However, literature seems to suggest that we can no
longer equate high cognitive ability with career success. Several studies
have shown that IQ by itself is a poor predictor of job performance. Hunter
and Hunter (1984) estimated that at best IQ accounts for about 25% of the
variance. Sternberg (1996) has pointed out that studies vary and that 10%
may be a more realistic estimate. In some studies, IQ accounts for as little
as 4% of the variance (Cherniss, 2000). Cherniss cited the Sommerville
study as an example. The 40-year longitudinal study was conducted to
trace the life of 450 boys who grew up in Sommerville, Massachusetts.
Two-thirds of the boys were from welfare families; one-third had IQs
below 90. The study found that IQ had little relation to how well they
did at work. What made the significant difference were their childhood
abilities such as being able to manage frustration, control emotions, and
form positive interpersonal relations (Snarey & Vaillant, 1985). Another
study has shown that social and emotional abilities were four times more
important than IQ in determining professional success and prestige (Fiest
& Barron, 1996).
This is not to conclude, however, that IQ is less important. It is just
to emphasize that IQ is not the sole predictor of job performance and
International Journal of Vocational Education and Training •
Vol. 14 • No. 2
9
work productivity. Thus, innovative employers should look beyond
cognitive and academic credentials when screening future employees.
Goleman (1995, 2001) asserts that outstanding workers usually have
an edge over others in their ability to control their emotions. These
stupendous individuals can endure complex tasks without experiencing
extreme burnout, and they are known to be team players who can work
exceptionally well with their coworkers to achieve organizational goals.
Studies abound that show individuals with high emotional intelligence
make use of their emotions to guide them in their thinking and behaviors
(Bar-On, 1988; Beekie, 2004; Skinner & Spurgeon, 2005; Weisenger,
1998). They are able to relate to others with compassion and empathy,
and have well-developed social skills. They work best as team players,
and normally would take the responsibility of leading the team to meet the
organizational goals. These individuals also use their emotional awareness
to direct their actions and behaviors that help them become better leaders.
Nevertheless, some people have difficulty managing their emotions,
especially when faced with emotionally volatile situations (Weisenger).
The inability to manage and communicate emotions effectively can lead
to unresolved and repetitive con icts among employees and in the long
run that can cause severe burnout and diminished productivity.
One of the critical workplaces is school. Based on international
comparison, it has been established that teaching serves as one of the
most stressful professions (Antoniou, 2000; Kyriacou, 1987; Manthei &
Solman, 1988). Literature seems to indicate that prolonged occupational
stress can lead to both mental and emotional ill-health, which in turn could
affect the quality of teaching (Antoniou, 2000; Borg, Riding, & Falzon,
1991; Kyriacou & Sutcliffe, 1978; Travers & Cooper, 1996). Heavy
workload, students’ disciplinary problems, and poor working conditions
have been identified as major factors that could lead to teachers’ burnout
(Borg et al. 1991; Guglielmi & Tatrow, 1998; Kyriacou & Sutcliffe,
1978). A stressful working environment can bring a negative impact on
the teachers’ psychological well-being and can cause discontentment and
emotional outbursts or emotional fallouts.
Arnold (2005) argues that effective teachers are those who display
empathy toward others and have the ability to interact harmoniously
with their environment. This idea supports the concept of facilitative
teachers suggested by Grasher (1996). Facilitative teachers are those who
empathize with their students and are sensitive to their students’ needs.
These teachers are willing to reach out to their students, and inevitably
become the students’ role model. In line with this argument, findings from
a study conducted by Ishak and Mohamad (2003) on student–teacher
attachment and its effect on teachers’ commitment toward the teaching
profession, demonstrate that teachers who show care and concern toward
10
Emotional Intelligence of Malaysian Teachers
their students have had higher commitment to their teaching profession.
These teachers were more sensitive to their students’ needs and were
willing to listen to their students’ grievances. Subsequently, not only the
teachers’ commitment is increased, but also the students’ motivation to
learn in the classroom.
Empirical research in Malaysia shows that teachers’ emotional fallouts
at their workplace was mainly due to the disruptive behavior by students
who had difficulty following instruction and who displayed disrespectful
behaviors toward their teachers (Idris, 2003; Ishak, 1995). A study
conducted by Ishak (1995) shows that besides the disruptive students,
heavy workload that the teachers must bear (including other tasks besides
teaching) also contributed toward teachers’ high levels of stress. Such
phenomenon can produce emotionally laden behaviors among teachers
that can affect their job productivity. Work or job productivity in this study
was simply defined as work performance of the teachers as appraised by
the school administrators.
A study conducted by Idris (2003) on the Malaysian teachers’
personality profile suggests that the teachers under study lack of positive
emotions and thus, they were unable to transmit their positive feelings
toward their students. The inability to transmit positive feelings can
trigger disruptive behaviors among students. Assuming that the teachers
were the students’ role models and the students were more likely to react
to teachers’ behaviors, it is argued that the teachers’ personalities and
behaviors toward the students could affect the students’ psychological
and emotional states. However, few studies have been conducted to
measure and validate the EQ of Malaysian teachers. Thus, it is critical
to conduct this study to examine the relationship among the domains of
emotional intelligence of Malaysian teachers and their implications on
workplace productivity.
Purpose of the Study
Based on the literature, this study hypothesizes that teachers who
are conscious of their own feelings, who can regulate their feelings
positively, motivate others, show empathy, love, and care for the
students, and interact positively with students will demonstrate higher
emotional intelligence. Thus, this study aims to answer the following
research questions:
1. What are the factors that enhance positive emotions (and thereby
increase teachers’ emotional intelligence)?
2. Do these factors correlate with each other?
International Journal of Vocational Education and Training •
Vol. 14 • No. 2
11
3. Do teachers teaching in different types of schools—boarding
or daily schools—differ in their ability to promote positive
emotion?
4. What are the implications of the teachers’ emotional intelligence on
workplace productivity?
Theoretical Framework of Emotional Intelligence
In this study we assume emotional intelligence is synonymous with
EQ. Thus, we used the terms interchangeably. Salovey and Mayer (1990)
first coined the term
emotional intelligence
and most psychologists
accepted the concept after Goleman successfully published his
book,
Emotional Intelligence,
in 1995. The
Encyclopedia of Applied
Psychology
(Spielberger, 2004) stated that there are currently three
major conceptual models of EQ: (a) the Salovey-Mayer model (Mayer
& Salovey, 1997), which defines the construct as the ability to perceive,
understand, manage, and use emotions to facilitate thinking, measured
by an ability-based measure (Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso, 2002); (b) the
Goleman model (1995, 1998), which views this construct as a wide array
of competencies and skills that drive managerial performance, measured
by multirater assessment (Boyatzis, Goleman, & HayGroup, 2001); and
(c) Bar-On model (1997a, 1997b) which describes a cross-section of
interrelated emotional and social competencies, skills, and facilitators
that in uence intelligent behavior, measured by self-report (Bar-On &
Handley, 2003a, 2003b).
This study used the Goleman model as the theoretical framework
because the model relates EQ to work performance. According to
Goleman (1995, p. 28), “emotional competence is a learned capability
based on emotional intelligence that results in outstanding performance at
work.” He argued that emotional intelligence determines one’s potential
for learning the practical skills that are based on two competencies—
personal and social competencies. Personal competency has three
domains: self-awareness, self-regulation, and self-motivation, whereas
the social competency comprised two domains, namely, empathy
and social skills. Self-awareness is defined as one’s ability to know
one’s internal states, preferences, resources, and intuitions (Goleman,
1995). It has three subdomains: emotional awareness, accurate self-
assessment, and self-confidence. The second domain, self-regulation,
is marked by one’s ability to manage one’s internal states, impulses,
and resources. The indicators that depict this ability are self-control,
trustworthiness, conscientiousness, adaptability, and innovation. The
third domain that is self-motivation illustrates emotional tendencies
12
Emotional Intelligence of Malaysian Teachers
that guide or facilitate reaching goals. The self-motivation domain
consists of achievement drive, commitment, initiative, and optimism.
According to Goleman (1995), social competency is the individual’s
ability to cope with relationships (personal as well as professional). This
competency has two domains: empathy and social skills. Empathy is
our awareness of other people’s feelings, needs, and concerns. It is the
skill of perceiving and sensing the experience and feelings of another
person. The five subdomains that made up empathy are: understanding
others, developing others, service orientation, leveraging diversity,
and political awareness. Although Holm (1997) sees communication
as part of empathy, Goleman (1998) suggested that it is actually one
of the components of social skills, which reveal one’s ability to induce
desirable responses in others. The eight subdomains that explain social
skills are in uence, communication, con ict management, leadership,
change catalyst, building bonds, collaborating–cooperation, and team
capabilities.
Weisenger (1998) defined emotional intelligence as the intelligent use
of emotion. According to him, emotional intelligence consists of four
basic elements. The first element is the ability to accurately perceive,
appraise, and express emotions. The second element involves the
ability to access or generate feelings on demand and it can facilitate
understanding of oneself and others. The third element is the ability
to understand emotions and the knowledge that derives from them.
The final element of emotional intelligence is the ability to regulate
emotions. Weisenger also claims that emotional intelligence is not
a trait; therefore, it could be nurtured, developed, and augmented.
Subsequently, one can increase his or her emotional intelligence by
learning and practicing the skills and capabilities that encompass
emotional intelligence. Although there exists a number of theoretical
frameworks on emotional intelligence, this study used the conceptual
framework suggested by Goleman (1995).
Methodology
Participants
The present exploratory study was part of a bigger study to examine
emotional intelligence of the Malaysian workforce. The study was
made possible by a grant provided by the Malaysian government under
its Intensified Research in Priority Areas (IRPA) project. The study
involved two phases. The first phase was to explore the predictor and
criterion variables of emotional intelligence of Malaysian teachers. A
International Journal of Vocational Education and Training •
Vol. 14 • No. 2
13
focus group and in-depth interview methods were employed in order to
identify the main domains of emotional intelligence within the Malaysian
context. The second phase employed a cross-sectional design that used
a questionnaire as instrument to collect the data needed to answer the
research questions.
One hundred and eighty secondary (180) schools teachers were
involved in the first phase of the study (men = 73, women = 107), and
640 teachers (men = 286, women = 354) were involved in the second
phase of this study (total = 820). Out of 640 teachers, 338 were teaching
at the Malaysian boarding schools, whereas the remaining 302 teachers
were teaching at the Malaysian daily schools. The respondents’ ages were
between 25 and 45 years old. The majority of the teachers were from the
Malay ethnic group, whereas the remaining numbers were from other
ethnic groups (e.g., Chinese, Indian, and others). This ethnic composition
is a typical of any Malaysian school. The teachers were selected using a
stratified random sampling method based on the directories of Malaysian
teachers obtained from the Ministry of Education and Trust Council of
the People (MARA).
Instrumentation
In the first phase, two different sets of interview protocols (focus
groups and in-depth interviews) were used to explore attributing factors
that contribute to the domains of emotional intelligence. The in-depth
interview protocol has 28 questions that enabled interviewers to explore
more deeply the participants’ ideas about emotional intelligence and
factors that contribute toward the development of healthy emotions.
The focus group protocol has five sets of open-ended questions arranged
consecutively (the total number of questions is 38). Focus group questions
help the researchers to explore new domains of emotional intelligence.
Data from the first phase of the study were validated using several methods
suggested by Yin (1994). The methods used were: (a) established chain
of evidence (construct validity), (b) reviewed transcript interview by
informants (construct validity), (c) developed pattern matching (internal
validity), (d) used replication logic (external validity), and (e) developed
case study database (reliability).
Data Collection
In the second phase of the study, data collected in the first phase was
used to develop a new EQ instrument known as the Malaysian Emotional
Quotient Inventory (MEQI). This instrument is divided into 11 sections
14
Emotional Intelligence of Malaysian Teachers
(A to K). Sections A, C, D, F, G, J, and I consist of items that measure
domains of the perceived emotional intelligence. The domains are self-
awareness (35 items), self-regulation (40 items), self-motivation (36
items), empathy (45 items), social skills (52 items), spirituality (9
items), and maturity (6 items). These items were developed on a five-
point Likert scale (
strongly agree
to
strongly disagree
). Sections B,
E, H, and K are items that measure emotional performance. Section
B displays pictures that depict facial expression and respondents
were asked to identify the expression according to how they feel.
Findings from a study conducted by Davies, Stankov, and Roberts
(1998) indicate that identification of “correct” facial expression is a
more effective method of measuring emotions when compared to other
measures such as self-report. Section E exhibits panoramic pictures,
and respondents were asked to indicate their feelings toward each of
the pictures. Section H consists of open-ended questions pertaining to
respondents’ ability to self-regulate in a given situation. In this section,
respondents were asked to rate their responses according to the points
given in the instruction. And finally, Section K illustrates 11 pictures of
mazes. Respondents were asked to progressively complete each maze
according to its level of difficulty. The 263 items in the MEQI were
developed from data collected during in-depth interviews as well as
focus group interviews. Reliability analysis conducted on each domain
revealed values of Cronbach’s coefficient alpha between 0.87 and
0.97.
Results
Data from the first phase of the study was transcribed, coded, and
analyzed using Nu*dist software. All five domains suggested by
Goleman (1995) emerged throughout the interviews. The domains are
(a) self-awareness, (b) self-regulation, (c) self-motivation, (d) empathy,
and (e) social skills. Goleman (1995) suggested three subdomains that
explained emotional awareness, and these are: (a) emotional awareness,
(b) accurate self-assessment, and (c) self-confidence. However, findings
from the study suggested an additional subdomain to explain self-
awareness. The new subdomain was identified as “intention.” The
numbers of subdomains for self-regulation remain the same, that is, (a)
self-control, (b) trustworthiness, (c) conscientiousness, (d) adaptability,
and (e) innovation. An additional subdomain was also found for self-
motivation, which is “interest” (see Table 1 for MEQI domains and
subdomains).
Malaysian Teachers: Implications
on Workplace Productivity
Noriah Mohd Ishak, Ramlee Mustapha,
Zuria Mahmud, and Siti Rahayah Ariffin
The National University of Malaysia
Abstract
Recent literature has shown that there is an increasing number of employers
who begin to recognize the importance of emotional intelligence
(emotional quotient; EQ) in the workplace. Emotional intelligence is the
ability to sense, understand, and effectively use the power of emotions
to guide, motivate, and even in uence others. Emotional outbursts in the
workplace can negatively affect the organization in terms of productivity,
representation, and profitability. Thus, the purpose of this study was
twofold: (a) to explore domains and subdomains of emotional intelligence
specific to Malaysian context, and (b) to examine the relationship among
the domains of emotional intelligence of Malaysian teachers and their
implications on workplace productivity. Results from the study suggest
additional domains (spirituality and maturity) and subdomains (intention,
interest, compassion, and helping others) that describe emotional
intelligence of the Malaysian teachers.
Introduction
An increasing number of employers have begun to recognize that
competencies associated with emotional intelligence are crucial in
a workplace (Cherniss & Goleman, 2001; Cooper & Sawaf, 1996;
Weisenger, 1998). Emotional intelligence is commonly defined as the
ability to sense, understand, and effectively use the power of emotions
to guide, motivate, and even in uence others (Salovey & Mayer, 1990).
Emotional intelligence in the form of emotional adaptability and agility
is essential to enhance personal and leadership qualities. According to
Goleman (1995, p. 1), “the rules for work are changing” and performance
is rarely judged by one’s ability to complete a task but by the ability to
empower oneself and others.
Emotional intelligence is not a new concept. The construct has been
8
Emotional Intelligence of Malaysian Teachers
studied by scientists using varied terminologies. Darwin’s early work
on the importance of emotional expression for survival and adaptation
has opened a new frontier on emotional intelligence (1872/1965). In
1937, Thorndike used the term
social intelligence
to describe emotional
quotient (EQ; Thorndike & Stein, 1937), whereas Wechsler used the
term
nonintellective
to refer to affective, personal, and social domains
(Wechsler, 1940). However, the work of these pioneers was largely
forgotten or overlooked until 1983 when Gardner began to put forward
the theory of “multiple intelligence” (Cherniss, 2000). Gardner (1983)
conceptualized “emotional intelligence” as constituting intrapersonal and
interpersonal intelligence. Salovey and Mayer (1990) were the first to use
the expression “emotional intelligence.” Goleman (1995, 1998) took one
step forward to link the theory to job performance. Other researchers have
studied the relationship between EQ and academic achievement (Drago,
2004), gender (Rivera Cruz, 2004), leadership (Skinner & Spurgeon,
2005; Stubbs, 2005; Wong & Law, 2002), employment (Beekie, 2004;
Eden & Aviram, 1993; Jacobs, 2004), personality (Bar-On, 1988; Jordan
& Troth, 2002; Lopez, Salovey, & Straus, 2003), and religiosity (Paek,
2004)
Regarding the relationship between cognition and emotion, there is a
growing understanding based on the neuroscience research that cognition
and emotions are interwoven in mental life especially in complex decision
making, self-awareness, self-regulation, motivation, empathy, and social
interaction (Davidson, Jackson, & Kalin, 2000; Emmerling & Goleman,
2003; Hung, 2003). However, literature seems to suggest that we can no
longer equate high cognitive ability with career success. Several studies
have shown that IQ by itself is a poor predictor of job performance. Hunter
and Hunter (1984) estimated that at best IQ accounts for about 25% of the
variance. Sternberg (1996) has pointed out that studies vary and that 10%
may be a more realistic estimate. In some studies, IQ accounts for as little
as 4% of the variance (Cherniss, 2000). Cherniss cited the Sommerville
study as an example. The 40-year longitudinal study was conducted to
trace the life of 450 boys who grew up in Sommerville, Massachusetts.
Two-thirds of the boys were from welfare families; one-third had IQs
below 90. The study found that IQ had little relation to how well they
did at work. What made the significant difference were their childhood
abilities such as being able to manage frustration, control emotions, and
form positive interpersonal relations (Snarey & Vaillant, 1985). Another
study has shown that social and emotional abilities were four times more
important than IQ in determining professional success and prestige (Fiest
& Barron, 1996).
This is not to conclude, however, that IQ is less important. It is just
to emphasize that IQ is not the sole predictor of job performance and
International Journal of Vocational Education and Training •
Vol. 14 • No. 2
9
work productivity. Thus, innovative employers should look beyond
cognitive and academic credentials when screening future employees.
Goleman (1995, 2001) asserts that outstanding workers usually have
an edge over others in their ability to control their emotions. These
stupendous individuals can endure complex tasks without experiencing
extreme burnout, and they are known to be team players who can work
exceptionally well with their coworkers to achieve organizational goals.
Studies abound that show individuals with high emotional intelligence
make use of their emotions to guide them in their thinking and behaviors
(Bar-On, 1988; Beekie, 2004; Skinner & Spurgeon, 2005; Weisenger,
1998). They are able to relate to others with compassion and empathy,
and have well-developed social skills. They work best as team players,
and normally would take the responsibility of leading the team to meet the
organizational goals. These individuals also use their emotional awareness
to direct their actions and behaviors that help them become better leaders.
Nevertheless, some people have difficulty managing their emotions,
especially when faced with emotionally volatile situations (Weisenger).
The inability to manage and communicate emotions effectively can lead
to unresolved and repetitive con icts among employees and in the long
run that can cause severe burnout and diminished productivity.
One of the critical workplaces is school. Based on international
comparison, it has been established that teaching serves as one of the
most stressful professions (Antoniou, 2000; Kyriacou, 1987; Manthei &
Solman, 1988). Literature seems to indicate that prolonged occupational
stress can lead to both mental and emotional ill-health, which in turn could
affect the quality of teaching (Antoniou, 2000; Borg, Riding, & Falzon,
1991; Kyriacou & Sutcliffe, 1978; Travers & Cooper, 1996). Heavy
workload, students’ disciplinary problems, and poor working conditions
have been identified as major factors that could lead to teachers’ burnout
(Borg et al. 1991; Guglielmi & Tatrow, 1998; Kyriacou & Sutcliffe,
1978). A stressful working environment can bring a negative impact on
the teachers’ psychological well-being and can cause discontentment and
emotional outbursts or emotional fallouts.
Arnold (2005) argues that effective teachers are those who display
empathy toward others and have the ability to interact harmoniously
with their environment. This idea supports the concept of facilitative
teachers suggested by Grasher (1996). Facilitative teachers are those who
empathize with their students and are sensitive to their students’ needs.
These teachers are willing to reach out to their students, and inevitably
become the students’ role model. In line with this argument, findings from
a study conducted by Ishak and Mohamad (2003) on student–teacher
attachment and its effect on teachers’ commitment toward the teaching
profession, demonstrate that teachers who show care and concern toward
10
Emotional Intelligence of Malaysian Teachers
their students have had higher commitment to their teaching profession.
These teachers were more sensitive to their students’ needs and were
willing to listen to their students’ grievances. Subsequently, not only the
teachers’ commitment is increased, but also the students’ motivation to
learn in the classroom.
Empirical research in Malaysia shows that teachers’ emotional fallouts
at their workplace was mainly due to the disruptive behavior by students
who had difficulty following instruction and who displayed disrespectful
behaviors toward their teachers (Idris, 2003; Ishak, 1995). A study
conducted by Ishak (1995) shows that besides the disruptive students,
heavy workload that the teachers must bear (including other tasks besides
teaching) also contributed toward teachers’ high levels of stress. Such
phenomenon can produce emotionally laden behaviors among teachers
that can affect their job productivity. Work or job productivity in this study
was simply defined as work performance of the teachers as appraised by
the school administrators.
A study conducted by Idris (2003) on the Malaysian teachers’
personality profile suggests that the teachers under study lack of positive
emotions and thus, they were unable to transmit their positive feelings
toward their students. The inability to transmit positive feelings can
trigger disruptive behaviors among students. Assuming that the teachers
were the students’ role models and the students were more likely to react
to teachers’ behaviors, it is argued that the teachers’ personalities and
behaviors toward the students could affect the students’ psychological
and emotional states. However, few studies have been conducted to
measure and validate the EQ of Malaysian teachers. Thus, it is critical
to conduct this study to examine the relationship among the domains of
emotional intelligence of Malaysian teachers and their implications on
workplace productivity.
Purpose of the Study
Based on the literature, this study hypothesizes that teachers who
are conscious of their own feelings, who can regulate their feelings
positively, motivate others, show empathy, love, and care for the
students, and interact positively with students will demonstrate higher
emotional intelligence. Thus, this study aims to answer the following
research questions:
1. What are the factors that enhance positive emotions (and thereby
increase teachers’ emotional intelligence)?
2. Do these factors correlate with each other?
International Journal of Vocational Education and Training •
Vol. 14 • No. 2
11
3. Do teachers teaching in different types of schools—boarding
or daily schools—differ in their ability to promote positive
emotion?
4. What are the implications of the teachers’ emotional intelligence on
workplace productivity?
Theoretical Framework of Emotional Intelligence
In this study we assume emotional intelligence is synonymous with
EQ. Thus, we used the terms interchangeably. Salovey and Mayer (1990)
first coined the term
emotional intelligence
and most psychologists
accepted the concept after Goleman successfully published his
book,
Emotional Intelligence,
in 1995. The
Encyclopedia of Applied
Psychology
(Spielberger, 2004) stated that there are currently three
major conceptual models of EQ: (a) the Salovey-Mayer model (Mayer
& Salovey, 1997), which defines the construct as the ability to perceive,
understand, manage, and use emotions to facilitate thinking, measured
by an ability-based measure (Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso, 2002); (b) the
Goleman model (1995, 1998), which views this construct as a wide array
of competencies and skills that drive managerial performance, measured
by multirater assessment (Boyatzis, Goleman, & HayGroup, 2001); and
(c) Bar-On model (1997a, 1997b) which describes a cross-section of
interrelated emotional and social competencies, skills, and facilitators
that in uence intelligent behavior, measured by self-report (Bar-On &
Handley, 2003a, 2003b).
This study used the Goleman model as the theoretical framework
because the model relates EQ to work performance. According to
Goleman (1995, p. 28), “emotional competence is a learned capability
based on emotional intelligence that results in outstanding performance at
work.” He argued that emotional intelligence determines one’s potential
for learning the practical skills that are based on two competencies—
personal and social competencies. Personal competency has three
domains: self-awareness, self-regulation, and self-motivation, whereas
the social competency comprised two domains, namely, empathy
and social skills. Self-awareness is defined as one’s ability to know
one’s internal states, preferences, resources, and intuitions (Goleman,
1995). It has three subdomains: emotional awareness, accurate self-
assessment, and self-confidence. The second domain, self-regulation,
is marked by one’s ability to manage one’s internal states, impulses,
and resources. The indicators that depict this ability are self-control,
trustworthiness, conscientiousness, adaptability, and innovation. The
third domain that is self-motivation illustrates emotional tendencies
12
Emotional Intelligence of Malaysian Teachers
that guide or facilitate reaching goals. The self-motivation domain
consists of achievement drive, commitment, initiative, and optimism.
According to Goleman (1995), social competency is the individual’s
ability to cope with relationships (personal as well as professional). This
competency has two domains: empathy and social skills. Empathy is
our awareness of other people’s feelings, needs, and concerns. It is the
skill of perceiving and sensing the experience and feelings of another
person. The five subdomains that made up empathy are: understanding
others, developing others, service orientation, leveraging diversity,
and political awareness. Although Holm (1997) sees communication
as part of empathy, Goleman (1998) suggested that it is actually one
of the components of social skills, which reveal one’s ability to induce
desirable responses in others. The eight subdomains that explain social
skills are in uence, communication, con ict management, leadership,
change catalyst, building bonds, collaborating–cooperation, and team
capabilities.
Weisenger (1998) defined emotional intelligence as the intelligent use
of emotion. According to him, emotional intelligence consists of four
basic elements. The first element is the ability to accurately perceive,
appraise, and express emotions. The second element involves the
ability to access or generate feelings on demand and it can facilitate
understanding of oneself and others. The third element is the ability
to understand emotions and the knowledge that derives from them.
The final element of emotional intelligence is the ability to regulate
emotions. Weisenger also claims that emotional intelligence is not
a trait; therefore, it could be nurtured, developed, and augmented.
Subsequently, one can increase his or her emotional intelligence by
learning and practicing the skills and capabilities that encompass
emotional intelligence. Although there exists a number of theoretical
frameworks on emotional intelligence, this study used the conceptual
framework suggested by Goleman (1995).
Methodology
Participants
The present exploratory study was part of a bigger study to examine
emotional intelligence of the Malaysian workforce. The study was
made possible by a grant provided by the Malaysian government under
its Intensified Research in Priority Areas (IRPA) project. The study
involved two phases. The first phase was to explore the predictor and
criterion variables of emotional intelligence of Malaysian teachers. A
International Journal of Vocational Education and Training •
Vol. 14 • No. 2
13
focus group and in-depth interview methods were employed in order to
identify the main domains of emotional intelligence within the Malaysian
context. The second phase employed a cross-sectional design that used
a questionnaire as instrument to collect the data needed to answer the
research questions.
One hundred and eighty secondary (180) schools teachers were
involved in the first phase of the study (men = 73, women = 107), and
640 teachers (men = 286, women = 354) were involved in the second
phase of this study (total = 820). Out of 640 teachers, 338 were teaching
at the Malaysian boarding schools, whereas the remaining 302 teachers
were teaching at the Malaysian daily schools. The respondents’ ages were
between 25 and 45 years old. The majority of the teachers were from the
Malay ethnic group, whereas the remaining numbers were from other
ethnic groups (e.g., Chinese, Indian, and others). This ethnic composition
is a typical of any Malaysian school. The teachers were selected using a
stratified random sampling method based on the directories of Malaysian
teachers obtained from the Ministry of Education and Trust Council of
the People (MARA).
Instrumentation
In the first phase, two different sets of interview protocols (focus
groups and in-depth interviews) were used to explore attributing factors
that contribute to the domains of emotional intelligence. The in-depth
interview protocol has 28 questions that enabled interviewers to explore
more deeply the participants’ ideas about emotional intelligence and
factors that contribute toward the development of healthy emotions.
The focus group protocol has five sets of open-ended questions arranged
consecutively (the total number of questions is 38). Focus group questions
help the researchers to explore new domains of emotional intelligence.
Data from the first phase of the study were validated using several methods
suggested by Yin (1994). The methods used were: (a) established chain
of evidence (construct validity), (b) reviewed transcript interview by
informants (construct validity), (c) developed pattern matching (internal
validity), (d) used replication logic (external validity), and (e) developed
case study database (reliability).
Data Collection
In the second phase of the study, data collected in the first phase was
used to develop a new EQ instrument known as the Malaysian Emotional
Quotient Inventory (MEQI). This instrument is divided into 11 sections
14
Emotional Intelligence of Malaysian Teachers
(A to K). Sections A, C, D, F, G, J, and I consist of items that measure
domains of the perceived emotional intelligence. The domains are self-
awareness (35 items), self-regulation (40 items), self-motivation (36
items), empathy (45 items), social skills (52 items), spirituality (9
items), and maturity (6 items). These items were developed on a five-
point Likert scale (
strongly agree
to
strongly disagree
). Sections B,
E, H, and K are items that measure emotional performance. Section
B displays pictures that depict facial expression and respondents
were asked to identify the expression according to how they feel.
Findings from a study conducted by Davies, Stankov, and Roberts
(1998) indicate that identification of “correct” facial expression is a
more effective method of measuring emotions when compared to other
measures such as self-report. Section E exhibits panoramic pictures,
and respondents were asked to indicate their feelings toward each of
the pictures. Section H consists of open-ended questions pertaining to
respondents’ ability to self-regulate in a given situation. In this section,
respondents were asked to rate their responses according to the points
given in the instruction. And finally, Section K illustrates 11 pictures of
mazes. Respondents were asked to progressively complete each maze
according to its level of difficulty. The 263 items in the MEQI were
developed from data collected during in-depth interviews as well as
focus group interviews. Reliability analysis conducted on each domain
revealed values of Cronbach’s coefficient alpha between 0.87 and
0.97.
Results
Data from the first phase of the study was transcribed, coded, and
analyzed using Nu*dist software. All five domains suggested by
Goleman (1995) emerged throughout the interviews. The domains are
(a) self-awareness, (b) self-regulation, (c) self-motivation, (d) empathy,
and (e) social skills. Goleman (1995) suggested three subdomains that
explained emotional awareness, and these are: (a) emotional awareness,
(b) accurate self-assessment, and (c) self-confidence. However, findings
from the study suggested an additional subdomain to explain self-
awareness. The new subdomain was identified as “intention.” The
numbers of subdomains for self-regulation remain the same, that is, (a)
self-control, (b) trustworthiness, (c) conscientiousness, (d) adaptability,
and (e) innovation. An additional subdomain was also found for self-
motivation, which is “interest” (see Table 1 for MEQI domains and
subdomains).
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